Category: 06- Great Pyramid elevators

1-2 Hoisting the megalithic stones on a temporary ramp

On By khufuliteIn 1-2 Hoisting the megalistic stone on a rampLeave a comment

To hoist a 70-ton block up a 52° slope, a force of 560 kN is required, which would have necessitated at least two ropes with a diameter of approximately 100 to 120 mm. Such ropes would have been too heavy for the required lengths and extremely difficult to handle.

As a result, for blocks exceeding 7 tons, the builders abandoned the idea of hoisting them along the pyramid’s faces.

Two potential solutions presented themselves:

The first was to build a temporary ramp reaching up to 62 m in height, the placement height of the last megaliths.

The second was to construct hydraulic float elevators at the center of the pyramid, as suggested by the configuration of the galleries and chambers found inside. This option is not discussed in this article but can be explored here:

https://kheopscoeurdepierre.wordpress.com/category/07-traitement-des-megalithes/5-megalithe-dans-lascenseur/

Temporary Ramp

This external ramp would have been built progressively, maintaining the same slope from the same starting point as the pyramid rose, ultimately reaching a height of 64 m, the level of the top of the five “relieving chambers” above the “King’s Chamber,” which are made of megalithic beams and rafters, the heaviest of which could weigh up to 70 tons.

At its peak, this ramp started from the eastern facing of course #81 at 64 m above the base and extended to its origin point, the arrival of the causeway connecting the upper and lower temples at the plateau level, 6 m below the base, resulting in a 70 m elevation over a 350 m length, giving a 20% slope.

With this slope, the resistance to hoisting a block was reduced to 20% of its weight, compared to 80% along the pyramid’s face.

Thus, for the largest 70-ton blocks, which needed to be raised to 48 m, the ramp’s slope required a force of 140 kN. Two hemp ropes with a 44 mm diameter pulling in parallel would have been sufficient for the task.

One might think that using the same method as along the faces—two parallel lines of “dynamic ballast” consisting of 70 operators each, spanning 35 m—could have worked.

However, given the operational risks of suspending so many people on these ropes, the builders likely implemented a differential winch on the course between the operators and the load, with, for example, a gear ratio of ten.

This winch would have reduced the number of operators by a factor of ten, requiring only two lines of 7 operators in a dynamic ballast position or 26 operators in two lines of 13 pulling from the course.

The hoisting speed would have been reduced by a factor of ten, but since the number of these megalithic blocks was limited, this would have been acceptable without jeopardizing the construction schedule.

Change of Slope

When transitioning from an 8% slope to a 20% slope, without proper adaptations, the block suddenly encounters significant resistance because the water cushions become ineffective.

To ensure the block remains in constant contact with its cushions, it was necessary to place it on a slab that could pivot from an 8% slope to a 20% slope, allowing the block to change incline while staying in contact with the ground.

To achieve this, at the point of slope change, the builders could have created a pit slightly longer than the block, about 4 m wide and 1 m deep.

At the bottom of the pit, a step could be placed, occupying half the pit’s length, and an 8 m-long slab could be positioned on this step at its midpoint.

This slab would rest on the step, with a wedge at its downstream end to prevent it from tilting backward.

In this position, its slope is 8%, and the downstream part of the slab is flush with the causeway.

Thus, the beam can engage onto the slab at the end of its journey on the first part of the causeway.

Once the beam is fully engaged on the slab, the downstream part of the slab is unloaded, allowing the wedges to be removed. The beam can then be slightly backed up, causing the slab to tilt downstream to a 20% slope. Wedges can then be placed upstream of the slab to secure its position.

The beam is now on a 20% slope at the level of the temporary ramp and can continue its ascent.

Placement of a Beam

The placement of the beams for the ceilings of the “King’s Chamber” could begin when the course on which the chamber’s walls were flush was more than half-filled on the south and west sides, leaving a straight path for the beam, which would be positioned almost at the center of the pyramid.

The courses intended to receive these megaliths typically measure over 120 m in length, providing a large working surface.

The fixed frame on which the drum rolls could be 10 to 20 m long.

To exert the required force, operators could pull from a fixed position on the course, with their feet firmly planted, each exerting a force of 600 N.

Thus, a group of 13 operators per line (each line measuring 5 m) is sufficient to hoist a 70-ton beam to the 64 m course via the 20% temporary ramp, thanks to the differential winch.

Such a setup could be installed in a 20 m space on a course over 120 m long.

The large beams arrive on the course via the eastern face, approximately 30 m south of the central axis. Once on the course, the beam can be moved with little effort on its cushions toward the walls of the King’s Chamber, which are flush.

The beam could then engage in the east-west axis over the chamber’s walls, spanning the void.

For the final meter of the journey, the cushions were no longer placed in front of the beam, which then completed its path by sliding directly on the granite walls already coated with mortar.

With a friction coefficient of about 0.5, the maximum effort required to move the largest beam is 350 kN.

In this case, a differential winch could be placed west of the chamber in the east-west axis of the pyramid, with a gear ratio of 50.

Although the beam moves very slowly, it only has to cover one meter, and the force required from the team of operators is reduced to just 7 kN.

06 – 06 Water level maintenance

On By khufuliteIn 06- Great Pyramid elevators, 6- Maintaining the water levelLeave a comment

During the pyramid’s construction, watching and precisely maintaining the water levels inside the chambers was crucial for the good function of the float elevator. If the level was too low, stones could not be raised on the course, and too high was not good either. The builders had put in place a surveillance device for the water level, as well as a tool to adjust it. The small grotto in the middle of the service shaft still demonstrates the method used.

mini grottr

Courtesy of Maraglioglio & Rinaldi

Read more

For each floor, the float would have had two operating phases. During the first phase, and at the beginning of the construction of the course, the float’s reach started between 0.5 (1.64 ft) and 1 m (3.2 ft) before reaching its maximal reach, which varied according to the floor. During the second phase, the float’s run was limited to a fixed height – which would not change throughout the construction – to deliver the stone blocks to the next floor. However, no matter the reach’s height, the lowest part of the float would always be at the same height since the loading point was at a fixed height for obvious reasons.

The builders would have two solutions, so the float could move at a variable height: either by varying the water level in the water circuit and keeping the float at the same weight, or by keeping the water level steady and making the float’s weight vary according to the desired reach.

The grotto’s configuration in the service shaft provides us with information about the chosen option, which is the steady water level, which would have been defined by the spillway of the shaft inside the small basin of the grotto.

Consequently, the float would have to be unballast, so its balance point would go up, and water would have to be added to maintain the level each time a new course was built.

The pros of this option were obvious: when the run distance was at its minimum, the float’s weight was at its maximum, and so was the oscillation time. For instance, the float of the first floor would be, at the beginning of the construction, immersed in water for 30 meters (98.4 ft), giving an oscillation time of 11 s instead of 7 s during its run; that way, workers could easily load the stone blocks as they go along.

When the course was higher than the float’s maximal reach, it delivered the stone blocks to the next floor, since its load-bearing reach capacity could not be changed. The builders would have placed a part of the ballast onto the loading plateau to set the maximum weight to lift and prevent the workers from adjusting the load float’s reach. Depending on the “weigh of the day”, builders would vary the ballast’s weight to keep the total loading weight steady, ensuring a steady static balance for the float.

We can reasonably compare the operation of the float to the beam of a scale, which always has to be balanced. But at the time, digital scales did not exist; on any mechanical scale, users always weighted an object twice for precision. This is undoubtedly what the pyramid builders did with their floats.

The internal volumes of the pyramid were built to be waterproof. Yet, there were hundreds of square meters of unreachable walls, and over time, leaks were expected as well as evaporation due to a hot and arid climate. As a result, water had to be added to keep the level even.

Water came into the pyramid through the float elevators inside containers, of which we know nothing. On demand, water was poured from the course into the service shaft for the first floor, and through a slanted shaft (wrongfully called an air shaft by the accepted consensus) connecting the course to the highest chamber in use.

These shafts were built to be perfectly waterproof; all the water poured from the top arrived at the bottom of the chamber. They were built in pairs to prevent any incident that could have plugged the shaft, like an object that would have fallen in it accidentally or due to sabotage, which would have immediately stopped the construction; clearing an 0.2 (0.65) x 0.2 m (0.65 ft) obstructed shaft from 20 m (65.6 ft) to 30 meters (98.4 ft) down did not take 5 minutes!

Once these water shafts had been sealed by the raising of the course – the service shaft for the first floor and the shafts of the lower chamber for the second floor – water was delivered on demand from the floor above to the one below.

The lower chamber’s floor was connected to a threshold on the first floor through which the water would flow, allowing it to keep its water level with absolute precision when water was poured from the third floor, passed by the Grand Gallery, and would supply the subterranean chamber floor.

At the lowest part of the Grand Gallery, there is a junction of four shafts: the Grand Gallery, the Horizontal Gallery, the Ascending Gallery, and the Service Shaft.

On the west vertical wall of the central groove of the Grand Gallery, there is a hole leading to the service shaft. This hole was clearly hammered, which means that there used to be a small wall that extended the wall where the central groove is, making the junction with the ascending gallery.

Yet, this junction also comes out of a hole in the upper surface of this same west wall.

seuil GG

It happens that, and it is not by chance, the lower threshold of this hole is exactly between the ground and the ceiling of the horizontal gallery leading to the lower chamber.

The water level inside the lower chamber could not go higher than this threshold without water flowing into the service shaft. But, there was a small, narrow passage, 0.58 (1.90) x 0.62m (2.03 ft) in cross-section, wide enough for a worker to go into the service shaft, where the small grotto was to supervise the water level of the first floor.

jonction GG GH

In the bottom-left hand corner of the drawing, there is the north end of the horizontal gallery; in the top-left hand corner, the bottom part of the Grand Gallery; in the bottom-right hand corner, the upper part of the ascending gallery; and in the middle, the water circuit of the lower chamber. Slightly to the left of the upper part of the ascending gallery, we can see the outlet of the service shaft, forming a threshold through which water would have flowed if it had gone over this level.

The floor where the upper chamber is, has been equipped with a knife gate valve, whose sliding pieces can still be observed in the pyramid; there are also the two false lintels made of granite, which have been meticulously surfaced and polished. Since the harrows chamber has been touched up by the builders themselves, nothing can prove that this device was used once the floor was put to use.

The upper part of the well shaft on the third floor has still not been discovered, so to this day, we do not know its precise configuration. Yet, the hole in the upper part of the Grand Gallery could have let water, stocked higher up in the well shaft, pass through.

By actioning the knife gate valve in the “harrows chamber”, a worker could send water that passed through the lower chamber flowing from the Grand Gallery, and then if the water level of the lower chamber overflowed the threshold, it would run into the service well until the water level of the first floor reached 3 meters (9.8 ft), the limit set by the threshold of the small grotto.

Keeping the water level in the lower chamber was easier since it was automatically adjusted by the threshold described above, and was accessible from the Grand Gallery.

As for the water level in the subterranean chamber, workers would go into the small grotto located in the service shaft, which is at the same height as the upper part of the well shaft of the subterranean chamber:

surveillant niveau niveau mini grotte

This small basin of the grotto served to save the overflow of water and as an intermediate reservoir.

We have to keep in mind that this grotto was completely in the dark, so workers had to use another method than visual to control the water level. The spillway gave absolute precision about the water level.

When the float of 4 M2 of cross-section did a +/- 15m (49.2 ft) run around its static balance point, the water level of the circuit would vary around 0.5m (1.64 ft) since the total free-water surface area was 120 M2. Therefore, a worker could add a bit of water using a scoop into the well shaft each time the float oscillated, and he could hear it trickle back into the small basin when the float was at its lowest point as it oscillated. As he had his feet in the water of the small basin, he could survey the water level; when he judged the level to be too low, he could ask for more water from the worker in the Grand Gallery, using a horn, for instance, into which he blew.

We notice that the slanted shafts of the upper chamber used to open on the exterior faces of the pyramid. Since the cladding has been removed, we will never know the configuration of these holes.

They might have been used to supply the upper chamber with water from the course higher than 80 meters (the same height as these holes), following a method we will probably never know about. A kind of temporary wooden gutter could have sufficed.

To conclude, by pouring water from the course under construction, first in the service shaft, then in the slanted shafts of the lower chamber, and those of the upper chamber, and by the intermediate of the threshold device, the water level inside the well shafts was automatically adjusted with absolute precision.

Category: 06 – 03 Elevator of the lower chamber

On By khufuliteIn 06- Great Pyramid elevators, 3- Second stage the lower chamberLeave a comment

Six years have passed since “the first pickax blow”, the pyramid was 28 meters (1102 in) high, and the course n°34 that serves as a vault of “the Queen’s Chamber” was installed. The float of this chamber can operate and lift the stones higher to the course 74, so 60 meters (2362 in).

When it started operating, the floor of the subterranean chamber was built and represented 42% of the total volume of the pyramid.

The teams and the method have already proven their success. The heaviest of the filling stones were positioned, and two layers** of 36-ton megaliths were installed, forming the vault of “the Queen’s Chamber” more than 25 meters (82 ft) from the base.

**To this day, just like for the upper chamber, we only saw the lower part of the rafters forming the chamber’s vault. So, I reproduced the architecture of the chamber’s entry, which is perfectly visible.

Everyone on the construction site knew it was just the beginning; another challenge awaited them: placing 3,500 tons of megaliths weighing between 30 and 72 tons each, between 48 and 60 meters (157 and 196.8 ft). But all were confident since the tools were powerful and reliable, the methods were tested, the workers were ready, the spirits were high, the pharaoh was smiling, and the barometer was fair.

The lower chamber’s float operated following the same basic principle as the previous one, that of the subterranean chamber, but with a different geometry.

The lower chamber and the horizontal gallery served as water tanks, replacing the subterranean chamber. But here, the water tank was under atmospheric pressure.

The free water surface occupied the lower chamber’s surface, 30 M2, the horizontal gallery’s surface to its junction with the north wall of the Grand Gallery, 41 M2, and the niche’s corridor, 10 M2, making a total surface of 81 M2.

Therefore, to keep the same dimensions as the second floor, the float was 2,5 M2. To travel +/- 2 meters, the water level in the chamber needed to be increased by +/- 2 x 2,6 / 81 = +/- 0.065 meter, so it went from 21.935 to 22.065 meters (71.96 to 72.39 ft).

A spillway was placed at the highest point of the ascending gallery to limit the water level inside the chamber and to pour the surplus into the service shaft to maintain the water level of the second floor if necessary.

This floor’s purpose was to lift the stones that were coming through the first floor, from the level + 28 meters (91.8 ft) of the pyramid, to the level + 60 meters (196.8 ft), hence a reach of 32 meters (104.9 ft).

One could think that the higher the construction gets, the lighter the stones to lift would be, which is true in most cases, but there are exceptions. The granite blocks used to make the walls for the upper chamber and for the funeral complex that came through this floor to be lifted to the upper chamber were weighted up to 27 tons at 44 meters (144.3 ft), which is the case for the monolith that tops the King’s chamber entry, and even 21 tons at the 48-meter (157.4 ft) level.

Read more

During the “normal” operating procedure, the water circuit of the lower chamber that filled the ascending gallery could be isolated from the water circuit of the subterranean chamber. That was how the three granite blocks were used.

According to the accepted consensus, the air shafts in the lower chamber would actually be used only to maintain the water level of the water circuit from the course when it was time to cover the Grand Gallery.

From these slanted shafts’ function, we can assume that the maximum height to lift the stone blocks is given by their top part, which is 60 meters (196.8 ft), or the 74th course.

Let’s not forget that, here, the function of a large free-water surface was to ensure that the water level varied little when the float moved into the water during its run.

The elevator in the subterranean chamber would have delivered the stone blocks to the 25-meter (82 ft) level. Therefore, its reach would have been 60 – 25 = 35 meters (114.8 ft).

The water circuit level was around 22 meters (72.1 ft) and filled the horizontal gallery halfway up. A small threshold at the end of the horizontal gallery served to hold back the water and keep it at the 22-meter (72.1 ft) level, regardless of what could happen in the ascending gallery.

The top of the float being at 22 meters (72.1 ft) when it was at the lowest point of its move, it would be 22 (72.1 ft) + 35 (114.8 ft) = 57 meters (187 ft) at its highest point.

To reach 60 meters (196.8 ft), the float must have been equipped with a 3-meter (9.8 ft) extension, so its plateau could be at 25 meters (82 ft) for loading.

Its reach was 35 meters (114.8 ft), and it was 37 meters (121.3 ft) long, including 2 meters (6.5 ft) of security, which were inserted in the highest part of the well shaft.

This float was made with the same technology as the first level float; its mean density was 0.2, and its weight was 37 x 2.5 x 0.2 = 20 tons, including the extension weight.

Therefore, the float’s draught was 20 / 2.5 = 8 meters (26.2 ft), and the plateau was out of charge at 22 + 37 – 8 = 51 meters (167.3 ft).

To bring it down to 25 meters (82 ft) to load it, 7.3 M3 of the plateau would have been weighed down by (51 – 25) x 2.5 = 65 tons of ballast. Some room was left—a central strip of 1.5 m (4.9 ft) by 3 m (9.8 ft) on the plateau, which had the same depth as that of the first floor.

The cage must always have a bigger cross-section than the well shaft, so the plateau could rest on a rest base when it was at its lowest position. This cage would have needed to be wide enough to let the biggest stone blocks pass through, including those of the upper chamber (except the megaliths) and 65 tons of bars of 1 ton placed on two strips of 0.75 x 3 on both sides of the central strip of the plateau.

The stones forming the walls of the upper chamber are all 1.2 meters (3.9 ft) high and 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) thick; only the length varies. The biggest monolith is the one abutting the west wall; it is 5.24 x 1.5 x 1.2 meters (17.1 x 4.9 x 3.9 ft) and weighs 26 tons at 48 meters (157.4).

So a plateau of 3 x 3 = 9 M2 cross-section would have sufficed.

(We can assume that the stones constituting the funeral complex followed the same dimension standard).

The float would have operated following the same principles as the first floor.

chambre basse der

The well shaft could be in the masonry behind the east flank of the lower chamber and on the west side of the first floor cage. It should be aligned on the east-west axis of the first floor well shaft because of the skids that could have been east-west oriented, but the pyramid is silent on the subject.

The well shaft was supplied with water simply by the corridor, which extended the niche.

The stone blocks that were lifted through this floor were brought onto the loading point through the adjacent cage of the previous floor.

Let’s take the lifting of the 26-ton block at 48 meters:

First, the stone block would be brought to the loading point by the first floor float, and then it would be loaded onto the plateau of the second floor float. It would weigh, with its load, 20 + 26 = 46 tons. When the ballast would be taken off, the float would sink by 46 / 2.5 = 18.5 meters (60.69 ft) into the well shaft, and 37 – 16.5 = 20.5 meters (67.25 ft) would stick out of the water level, reaching 22 + 20.5 = 42.5 meters (139.43 ft), missing the targeted level of 48 meters (157.48 ft) by 5.5 meters (18 ft).

To reach 48 m (157.48 ft), the float would need to oscillate by +/- 5.5 m (18 ft). At its 48-m (157.48 ft) high point, it would be attached to check valves, so the block could be unloaded, but beforehand the platform would have received 26 t of ballast so as not to change the level when the block left the platform.

What would be its maximal load-bearing at 60 meters

(2362,2 in)?

When the float would meet its maximal reach, the static balance point of the loaded float – which could have had a maximum amplitude of oscillation equaling the half of its height, that is to say 17 meters (55.77 ft) – must be at 60 (196.8) – 17 (55.77) = 43 meters (141 ft). So 43 (141) – 22 (72.1) = 21 meters (68.89 ft) of the float would stick out of the water level, meaning only 37 (121.3) – 21 (68.89) = 16 meters (52.4 ft) of its height would be immersed. Therefore, it would weigh 16 x 2.5 = 40 tons, including the 20 tons of the float itself, which limited the load-bearing capacity of the second-floor elevator to 20 tons of the stone blocks to lift and install at 60 meters (196.4 ft). It means this floor could not have been used to lift the megaliths.

Third floor, the upper chamber

06 – 07 The last stages to the summit

On By khufuliteIn 7-Last stages up to the summitLeave a comment

As the summit took shape, the surface of the course narrowed. It happened that a course could not be built following the classic method: two angle transmission systems and a winch.

The workers would have abandoned the winch, which took up too much space, to replace it with an angle transmission placed at the center.

The rope that pulled the load was coiled around the idler roll before getting fixed to the counterweight’s cart.

Instead of controlling the balance between the counterweight and the charge with a winch, workers could have systematically used a slightly heavier counterweight, and they could have coiled a rope around the idler roll to slow down its descent.

The load was then hauled up by two operators pulling on the rope.

There was another issue: the shaft leading to the burial chamber, which could have been narrow, maybe 1.2 × 1.2 meters wide, took up more and more space on the course. Besides, it could not be placed exactly at the center so that the pyramidion could be placed.

Yet, I think that in the end, workers would have had to build a wood platform surrounding the pyramid to have enough space to put their materials and work.

Once the king was buried, the platform would be dismantled and brought back down to the base, which would be a work worthy of an acrobat.

But four pyramids had already been built; they had time to perfect their techniques!

06 – 05 Elevators energy supply

On By khufuliteIn 5- Man-powering the elevatorsLeave a comment

The first general principle of the construction site was to separate the energy brought by men (using their weight) from the one brought by nature (gravity or Archimedes thrust) that applied to a counterweight or a float.

The second principle was to employ ballasts in the form of copper bars of manageable weight to lift loads too heavy for human strength. These bars were piled up onto the counterweights, or floats, and thanks to gravity, it brought the necessary force to lift these heavy blocks.

This compensation principle is straightforward to understand: to lift a ton, a ton has to descend. Read more.

On the winch placed on the course, workers used the same rope over and over to go down. The worker would jump to take the rope at 2.5 meters high and then curl up while descending 2 meters before letting go of the rope. He would then land on a slide to soften his landing, and a previous worker waited for him to help him get up before going back in line to repeat the operation.

Therefore, using his strength and body weight while falling, the worker supplied the mechanism with energy.

The floats worked as follows: the workers went down on the plateau and then climbed the stairs in the cage nearby. The energy that resulted from this was the product of their weight multiplied by the fall’s height point and was transferred to the float while they were going down on the platform.

The key to this method was to limit the movements of the workers during their hard work. Indeed,

under the blazing sun of the Giza plateau, they could be easily exhausted from just walking 50 km (31 miles).

The area of the workstation was limited to prevent workers from walking great distances and to allow workers to work in the shade.

The workers could be compared to the professional athletes of today because they were well-treated and well-fed, and they were also motivated.

They could work at a sustained pace for hours, producing a power of 200 W (which equals the effort produced by a professional cyclist) thanks to the device, but to preserve the workers’ energy, they were limited to an average daily power production of 80 W and worked in turns. This means that the worker had to produce for a day of work 1 kWh, to be solely directed on the stone if possible.

06 – 04 Elevator of the upper chamber

On By khufuliteIn 4- Third stage the upper chamberLeave a comment

The harrows chamber is the key to understanding this level as well as the other two. It is a part of the third-level shaft that was covered up by the builders once the pyramid’s construction was over.

This volume could contain a float of 1 x 1.5 m in cross-section. If we extend the shaft higher up, it cuts the ends of two rafters on the roof. They could have been shortened by a fraction of a meter at this junction (nobody went there to check) without damaging the construction.

The harrows chamber, being a part of this shaft, reveals that the inner walls were coated with granite stones, which seemed appropriate to guide the float’s sliding inside. This coating was then carved in such a way to make slides for the harrows.

Therefore, this shaft was supplied with water coming from the upper chamber, and like on the second floor, we see sloping pipes that come out of the chamber and go up 80 meters. It marked the maximal reach of this hoist loaded with stone blocks at 60 meters, so it had a 20-meter reach, a length of 22 meters, and its bottom part is at 38 meters (60 – 22 = 38).

The float’s weight would be 22 x 1.5 x 0.2 = 6.6 tons, and its draught, when empty, would be 6.6 / 1.5 = 4.4 meters; its emerged part would be 22 – 4.4 = 17.6 meters, and its level when empty  would be 60 + 17.6 = 77.6 meters.

To bring the float to its loading point, it had to be ballasted at 17.6 x 1.5 = 26.4 tons, or 3 M3 of bars.

The plateau was 2 x 3m = 6 M2.

To this day, we do not know what could be found in terms of blocks between 60 (2362 in) and 80 meters (3149,6 in), where the Big Void is; only that it exists.

To reach level 80 meters, the point of static balance would have been at 70 meters, with an oscillation’s amplitude of + /- 10 m.

At 70 m, the float would have 10 m of its length emerged and 12 m immersed, so it would weigh 12 x 1.5 = 18 tons, with a load of 18 – 6.6 = 11.4 tons, which represented the maximal load the float could carry up to 80 meters.

But the upper Chamber ceiling is only found at level 49 m, 11 meters lower than the highest point of the well shaft, which would be the water level of the circuit; so the upper Chamber (like the subterranean chamber) was put under pressure, its ceiling and walls were airtight (which explained why granite was chosen and why the joints were so meticulous), and that air would be submitted to a pressure close to an 11-meter-high water column. If there was even a slight leak in the upper chamber, the water would reach the ceiling and the floor would stop operating.

To summarize, the water circuit would go through the chamber 5.23 x 10.47 = 55 M2 of section, two sloping water pipes shafts connected to the course, and a well-shaft, including the harrows chamber being a part of it, supplied in water by the passage between the upper chamber and the Grand Gallery; a narrow passage filled by “the sarcophagus,” whose one end was placed and sealed under two false lintels still in place today.

These two false lintels, which can vertically slide in the north part of this volume, served as valves to supply water contained in the upper chamber via the Grand Gallery towards the descending passage and the lower chamber.

vanne faux linteaux

Behind the knife gate valve, the float is not represented to avoid overloading the illustration.

The chamber would be filled with water by the sloping shafts connected to the course until the water level reached 60 meters in the well-shaft.

This float and the one from the second floor operate in the same way.

Commentary:

Compared to the simplicity and the performance of the lower chamber, the upper chamber’s elevator functions like a “gas plant” with the 3,500 tons of huge blocks placed on its ceiling. These megaliths demanded considerable ingenuity to cut, transport and install; in the end, they just obtained a 20-meter reach, whereas the elevator of the lower chamber, which was simpler to build, had a 33-meter reach.

What is more, at one point during the construction, perhaps near the end, a catastrophe was avoided as the huge beams of the ceiling cracked under the settlement of the chamber’s foundation. It is a miracle they did not collapse into the chamber.

This crack was a serious incident because it compromised the airtightness of the upper chamber, which meant the chamber could not be used anymore, and the pyramid stopped working.

The builders acted by propping the beams up to secure the structure — there are still traces on the ceiling, — and they filled the cracks to airtight the chamber, but the props used have disappeared. Why?

Because it was a temporary structure made to last one or two years, giving enough time to finish the pyramid, which was 80 % built at the time of the incident. The props were removed once the pyramid’s construction was over. The upper chamber was not needed anymore; the ceiling could have collapsed, and the builders would not have cared; the King had been placed elsewhere.

If this chamber happened to be the King’s, destined to protect him during his eternal journey, it would have marked the end of the pyramid!

One thing must be clearly understood: building an airtight chamber under 97 meters (3818.9 inches) of stones is like building a stone bathyscaphe at 240 meters (9448.82 inches) deep in the sea!

Under such a pressure, it is difficult to build a significant volume in stones, and so on the third floor, when it turned out the surface of the chamber had to be increased, the builders tried to limit the risks by choosing a very hard material, but it did not suffice! The 43-meter (1692.9-inch) masonry supporting the chamber, leaning on the bedrock, did not withstand the high stress without subsiding a little and unevenly. Perhaps it should have been in granite too?

Why is there a huge structure above the upper Chamber’s ceiling?

  • Nothing can justify the fact that this superstructure was made so the chamber could resist the pyramid’s crushing weight; the small solid ceiling of the lower chamber, which has 20 meters more pressure, is still holding.
  • It cannot be justified either, especially when it comes to the hydraulic system.

The only logical explanation that I found is that at this spot, at the center of the pyramid, on the north side of the upper chamber between the courses #64 and 77, so between 52 and 60 meters (2362 in), there was a need for a nice, flat and free from any obstacles space on the course to build the funeral complex for the King in this space. This structure must be designed in the same way as the lower chamber, but longer, not wider, and with some granite and airtight chambers connected to each other by a passageway.

Then, once the structure was finished, the next course covered everything, leaving a flat and empty surface. Now, the megaliths could be placed to the north to finish the roof of the upper Chamber.

Therefore, the complexity of handling the megaliths was not to build a water tank for the hydraulic elevators but to build the King’s funeral complex.

Now that “I gave the game away,” everybody knows where the King is resting, but to get to see him, there will be obstacles to overcome, and not just administrative!

Lower chamber niche

Harrows chamber

Harrows and fake sarcophagus

06 – 02 Elevator of the subterranean chamber

On By khufuliteIn 2- First stage the subterranean grottoLeave a comment

Mission:

The mission of this level was to raise all blocks weighing between 7 and 70 tons, which were too heavy to be hoisted along the pyramid’s faces, first to the course up to 25 m above the base, and then to transfer them to the second level for further elevation.

A central shaft, located along the east-west axis of the “Harrow Chamber,” supplied with water from the underground grotto, extended from -34 m to 3 m. From this level, it was extended by a cage that progressively rose as the courses were built, reaching up to 62 m.

The water circuit of this shaft included the underground grotto (section 116.4 m²), the shaft (section 4 m²), the descending gallery (horizontal section 1.4 m²), and the service shaft (section 0.2 m²), resulting in a total free water surface of 122 m².

This shaft contained an elevating float with a 4 m² section, used to lift blocks from 7 to 70 tons. Some of these blocks can be observed in the “Al-Ma’mun breach,” the ascending gallery, certain lintels of the descending gallery, the rafters of the “entrance,” the rafters of the “Queen’s Chamber,” and, of course, many of the well-known blocks in the “King’s Chamber,” as well as those likely to be discovered one day in the “Big Void.”

From the 3 m level, the shaft was extended by a cage, initially carved into the original mound up to 7 m, and then raised progressively with the construction of the courses, capable of accommodating all the megaliths present in the pyramid, which could be placed one by one on a platform lifted by a float sliding in the lower part of the shaft.

The operating principle was as follows: a sealed float, 37 m long with a 4 m² section, weighing 32 tons, floated in the shaft where the water level was maintained at 3 m.

When empty, it submerged 8 m into the water, with its upper surface at 3 + (37 – 8) = 32 m, which was its maximum “static” reach. The float sank 1 m for every 4 tons of load placed on the platform.

To load a block onto the platform at the 3 m level, the float had to be fully submerged by loading it with a total weight of (37 x 4) – 32 = 116 tons, made up of copper ingots, or by lowering the water level by bailing out 116 m³ through the descending gallery to store this volume of water in the reservoir at the entrance, partially discovered by the “ScanPyramids” project.

The presence of this reservoir indicates that this solution was used. There is a small grotto in the “service shaft” at the 3 m level that allowed the shaft to be refilled with precision.

Thus, to raise a 32-ton rafter for the “Queen’s Chamber” to 26 m, the “static” reach would have been 32 – (32/4 = 8) = 24 m, which was insufficient.

The requirement was the 26 m level. To gain the missing 2 meters, the builders could use the “dynamic” procedure.

By locking the float in the cage as it rose with the filling of the circuit (or the unloading of the ballast) while it was still at the 20 m level, and continuing to fill it, they could then unlock the float, which, rising “like a cork,” would exceed the 24 m level, reach nearly 28 m, and then fall back onto the non-return wedges at the exact level. The builders had ample time to experimentally refine this process, create the non-return wedges, and likely develop a toggle mechanism to lock the float in position.

Beyond this height, except for the megaliths of the “relieving chambers” of the “King’s Chamber,” which arrived at the 24 m level, the blocks were transferred to the platform of the second level.

Megalith Procedure:

The 30- to 70-ton monoliths of the “King’s Chamber” structure could not pass through the shafts of the second and third levels. They underwent a special procedure described here:

Megaliths in the grotto elevator

04-01 Hauling the stones along one face of the pyramid

On By khufuliteIn 1- Hauling the filling stone along a faceLeave a comment

The pyramid with smooth faces may be the only monument that has its own hoist.

Moving stone blocks on a smooth face without being damaged and with little friction was solved thanks to small water filled cushions.

As the block advanced, supported by cushions that compressed their liquid contents, these cushions simultaneously kept the block suspended while unrolling upon themselves due to the deformation of their fabric.
This ingenious mechanism significantly reduced the effort required to slide the block.
Horizontally, the effort needed to move the block was primarily due to the deformation of the fabric constituting the cushions.
This effort remained extremely low and almost independent of the block’s weight.
These cushions offered several advantages:
They exerted minimal pressure on the ground and, thanks to their thickness, effectively absorbed small irregularities in the terrain and the surfaces of the blocks.
As a result, they left no visible traces after their passage.
However, as the block moved forward, the cushions would eventually slip out toward the rear (downstream). It was therefore necessary to retrieve them and reposition them in front of the block, upstream.
On flat terrain or a gentle slope, it was possible to place a few cushions slightly ahead along the intended path.
On the inclined faces of the pyramid, however, with a slope of 52°, it was not feasible to preposition cushions upstream.
In this specific case, an operator positioned on the block retrieved the cushions that had slipped out downstream and passed them to another operator, also stationed on the block. This second operator then slid the cushions under the block, upstream, so they could resume their supporting role.
The system operated with a minimum of six cushions under each block, arranged in two rows of three.
Thus, at least four cushions remained fully engaged under the block’s weight at all times.
Given the base surface area of the blocks, this required relatively modest cushion dimensions, approximately 30 cm in diameter.
As soon as a cushion even partially emerged from under the block, its internal pressure dropped to zero, it no longer bore any weight, and it could be extracted (or inserted) effortlessly.

The face has interesting characteristics:

We can analyze the forces acting on a block placed on a face with an angle of approximately 52° relative to the vertical, where the sine is 0.79 and the cosine is 0.62. For a 1-ton block placed on this face, its perpendicular projection onto the face is 620 kg, and its parallel projection along the face is 790 kg. To begin lifting it, a force of 790 kg parallel to the face, which is inclined at 52° to the vertical, would need to be applied.

Elevation of Blocks Along a Face

Why bother constructing costly auxiliary ramps when the builders could directly use the smooth, well-crafted faces of the pyramid under construction as natural ramps?
These faces were used to raise the blocks, which started from a carved stone terrace surrounding the base of the structure.
The first phase thus involved transporting the blocks to the foot of the pyramid.
Once there, the blocks had to be hoisted along a face using a rope.
As we will see later, the builders had the necessary means to generate the required force to hoist the block.
With this method, the pyramid was raised course by course in successive layers, with the casing stones, already cut to the correct dimensions in the Tura quarries, being placed.
This approach allowed for continuous verification during the elevation that the slopes and orientations were perfect.
The article below describes the methods used:
https://www.academia.edu/44957454/Jeu_dombre_et_de_lumi%C3%A8re_pour_une_pyramide_parfaite
After the placement of the pyramidion, the pyramid was complete in terms of its external appearance, requiring no further adjustments.

Generating the Force to Hoist Blocks Along a Face

The key point is that, regardless of the hoisting method, the rope needed to pass over a pulley at the junction of the pyramid’s face and course.
This pulley served two purposes:
  • Position the rope at the height of the hoisting mechanism on the course and the block on the face, ensuring easy handling and no rubbing.
  • Lift the arriving block high enough to move onto the course.
For low-friction operation, the pulley had to rotate, using a design suited to the era’s technology and requiring no lubrication.
I propose a generic model, likely cast in copper, with a grooved disk to guide the rope and a rotating axle with conical ends pivoting in conical housings. This minimizes friction, reducing resistance without needing lubricant.
The pulley was housed in a frame placed at the course’s edge. The forces parallel to the face and course aligned within the frame’s support base, so it only needed to be placed and secured, as it stayed stable.
To hoist a block along the 52°-inclined face, a force of about 80% of its weight was needed—roughly 20 kN for an average block, up to 60 kN for larger ones.
The workers hoisting the blocks were likely selected for their physical strength, well-trained, and motivated, comparable to modern professional athletes.
Blocks were hoisted using two methods:
  1. Operators on the course pulled the rope attached to the block.
  2. Operators hung from the rope at the base of the opposite face, acting as a dynamic counterweight.

1. Operators Working Horizontally on the Course:

Stationed in fixed positions, operators pulled by leaning back, bracing with their legs, feet firmly planted, and drawing their arms toward them. Each could exert 600 N and move the rope about 1 m per pull.
Operators were arranged in two rows on either side of the rope. While one row pulled, the other repositioned, and vice versa, keeping the rope taut and the load moving continuously.
As shown later, the rope could advance at an average speed of about 1 m/s.
Hoisting with 20 kN required 33 operators per row (20 / 0.6), totaling 66 operators for two rows.
Operators were spaced 1 m apart per row, with rows offset by 0.5 m.
Sixty-six operators (two rows of 33) occupied 33 m on the course. For a 7.4-ton block needing 60 kN, two rows of 100 operators each (200 total) spanned 100 m.
As course height increased, limited space made this method impractical, requiring a switch to another approach.

2. Dynamic Counterweight:

To give the operators height, a ladder approximately 30 m long was placed from the base of the pyramid face opposite the one along which the block was being hoisted.
The operators climbed the ladder, then, from a certain height, hung from the rope while keeping their feet on the rungs, pulling continuously as they descended.
The operators, spaced 1 m apart, were positioned on either side of the rope, offset by 0.5 m. Thus, 10.5 m of rope held 20 operators plus 2.
When an operator reached the base, they released the rope and climbed back up the ladder, while a new operator hung from the rope from a high position on the ladder.
As a result, a constant number of operators would be hanging from the rope, pulling as the block ascended the opposite face continuously at a speed of about 1 m/s.
This method is effectively a dynamic counterweight.
Hanging from the rope, an operator, aided by their body weight, could pull with a force of 1 kN. Thus, 20 operators were sufficient to hoist a 2.5-ton block, and 60 operators, spanning 29 m of rope, were needed for a 7.4-ton block.
Both methods could be used together, with a small number of operators remaining on the course to position the block once it was hoisted onto it.
Illustrations Show Course 201
At the end of its ascent, when the block reached the level of the course, it gradually lost the support of the face and began to tilt onto the course. At this point, the operators had to exert a brief “burst of effort” to help the block fully tilt and rest on the cushions awaiting it on the course.
Once the block was resting on the course, it came up against the rope pulley.
The operators could then release the rope and wait on the ladder. After this, the rope could be slackened, detached, removed from the pulley, and reattached to the block to pull it horizontally across the course on the cushions toward its final position.
Thanks to the cushions, the effort required was minimal, and one or two operators could easily pull the block.
However, within 1 to 2 meters of its final position, the block would no longer be supported by the cushions and would rest directly on the course. The effort to pull it then increased to 40% of its weight. At this stage, the operators needed to remain on the rope for this final effort to position the block snugly against the previously placed block.
All that remained was to lower the rope and sling to hoist the next block.